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By NASA
4 min read
NASA’s Instruments Capture Sharpest Image of Earth’s Radiation Belt
From Aug. 19-20, ESA’s (European Space Agency’s) Juice (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) mission made history with a daring lunar-Earth flyby and double gravity assist maneuver, a spaceflight first. As the spacecraft zipped past our Moon and home planet, Juice’s instruments came online for a dry run of what they’ll do when they reach Jupiter. During that time, two of NASA’s onboard instruments added another first to the list: capturing the sharpest-ever image of Earth’s radiation belts – swaths of charged particles trapped in Earth’s magnetic shield, or magnetosphere.
The Jovian Energetic Neutrals and Ions (JENI) instrument, built and managed by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in Laurel, Maryland, on behalf of NASA, took the image as Juice soared away from Earth. What it captured is invisible to the human eye. Unlike traditional cameras that rely on light, JENI uses special sensors to capture energetic neutral atoms emitted by charged particles interacting with the extended atmospheric hydrogen gas surrounding Earth. The JENI instrument is the newest generation of this type of camera, building on the success of a similar instrument on NASA’s Cassini mission that revealed the magnetospheres of Saturn and Jupiter.
An illustration showing the trajectory of ESA’s Juice spacecraft during its lunar-Earth gravity assist, featuring a high-resolution ENA image of the million-degree hot plasma halo encircling Earth captured by NASA’s JENI instrument. The white rings denote equatorial distance of 4 and 6 Earth radii. The inset showcases measurements taken by the NASA’s JENI and JoEE instruments during their passage through the radiation belts, revealing a highly structured energetic ion and electron environment. Credit: ESA/NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Josh Diaz “As soon as we saw the crisp, new images, high fives went around the room,” said Matina Gkioulidou, deputy lead of JENI at APL. “It was clear we had captured the vast ring of hot plasma encircling Earth in unprecedented detail, an achievement that has sparked excitement for what is to come at Jupiter.”
On Aug. 19, JENI and its companion particle instrument Jovian Energetic Electrons (JoEE) made the most of their brief 30-minute encounter with the Moon. As Juice zoomed just 465 miles (750 kilometers) above the lunar surface, the instruments gathered data on the space environment’s interaction with our nearest celestial companion. It’s an interaction scientists expect to see magnified at Jupiter’s moons, as the gas giant’s radiation-rich magnetosphere barrels over them.
On Aug. 20, Juice hurled into Earth’s magnetosphere, passing some 37,000 miles (60,000 km) above the Pacific Ocean, where the instruments got their first taste of the harsh environment that awaits at Jupiter. Racing through the magnetotail, JoEE and JENI encountered the dense, lower-energy plasma characteristic of this region before plunging into the heart of the radiation belts. There, the instruments measured the million-degree plasma encircling Earth to investigate the secrets of plasma heating that are known to fuel dramatic phenomena in planetary magnetospheres.
“I couldn’t have hoped for a better flyby,” said Pontus Brandt, principal investigator of JoEE and JENI at APL. “The richness of the data from our deep-dive through the magnetosphere is astounding. JENI’s image of the entire system we just flew through was the cherry on top. It’s a powerful combination we will exploit in the Jovian system.”
Now after using the Moon’s and Earth’s gravity, Juice’s trajectory has been successfully adjusted for a future encounter with Venus in August 2025. That Venus flyby will serve as a gravitational slingshot, propelling Juice back toward Earth and priming it for two additional flybys in September 2026 and January 2029. Only then will the spacecraft, now boosted into high gear, make its grand arrival at Jupiter in July 2031.
The Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, in Laurel, Maryland, manages the JoEE and JENI instruments, which together make up the Particle Environment Package (PEP-Hi) instrument suite, for NASA on ESA’s Juice mission. The JoEE and JENI instruments are part of the Solar System Exploration Program, managed at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center for the agency’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington.
For more information on NASA’s involvement with ESA’s Juice mission, visit:
https://science.nasa.gov/mission/juice/
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By NASA
The X-15 hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, built by North American Aviation (NAA), greatly expanded our knowledge of flight at speeds exceeding Mach 6 and altitudes above 250,000 feet. A joint project among NASA, the U.S. Air Force, and the U.S. Navy, the X-15’s first powered flight took place on Sept. 17, 1959, at the Flight Research Center, now the Armstrong Flight Research Center, at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) in California. NAA chief test pilot A. Scott Crossfield piloted this flight and other early test flights before NASA and the Air Force took ownership of the aircraft. Between 1959 and 1968, 12 pilots completed 199 missions and achieved ever higher speeds and altitudes, knowledge and experience that later influenced the development of future programs such as the space shuttle.
Left: During its October 1958 rollout ceremony at the North American Aviation (NAA) facility in Los Angeles, NAA pilot A. Scott Crossfield poses in front of the X-15-1. Right: Rollout of X-15-2 at the NAA facility in February 1959.
The origins of the X-15 date to 1952, when the Committee on Aerodynamics of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) adopted a resolution to expand their research portfolio to study flight at altitudes between 12 and 50 miles and Mach numbers between 4 and 10. The Air Force and Navy agreed and conducted joint feasibility studies at NACA’s field centers. In 1955, the Air Force selected North American Aviation (NAA), Los Angeles, to build three X-15 hypersonic aircraft.
On Oct. 1, 1958, the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) incorporated the NACA centers and inherited the X-15 project. Two weeks later, on Oct. 15, 1958, the rollout of the first of the three aircraft took place at NAA’s Los Angeles facility where several of the early X-15 pilots, including Crossfield, attended. After the ceremony, workers wrapped the aircraft, placed it on a flatbed truck, and drove it overnight to the High Speed Flight Station, renamed by NASA the Flight Research Center in September 1959, where all the X-15 flights took place. Before this first aircraft took to the skies, NAA rolled out X-15-2 on Feb. 27, 1959. The X-15-3 rounded out the small fleet in early 1960.
Aerial view of the Flight Research Center, now NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, with one of the B-52 carrier aircraft at left and an X-15 at right. Image credit: courtesy JD Barnes Collection.
Left: Diagram showing the two main profiles used by the X-15, either for altitude or speed. Right: The twin XLR-11 engines, left, and the more powerful XLR-99 engine used to power the X-15.
Like earlier X-planes, a carrier aircraft, in this case a modified B-52 Stratofortress, released the 34,000-pound X-15 at an altitude of 45,000 feet to conserve its fuel for the research mission. Flights took place within the High Range, a flight corridor extending from Wendover AFB in Utah to the Rogers Dry Lake landing zone adjacent to Edwards AFB, with emergency landing zones along the way. Typical research missions lasted eight to 12 minutes and followed either a high-altitude or a high-speed profile following launch from the B-52 and ignition of the X-15’s rocket engine. After burnout of the engine, the pilot guided the aircraft to an unpowered landing on the lakebed runway. To withstand the high temperatures during hypersonic flight and reentry, the X-15’s outer skin consisted of a then-new nickel-chrome alloy called Inconel-X. Because traditional aerodynamic surfaces used for flight control while in the atmosphere do not work in the near vacuum of space, the X-15 used its Ballistic Control System thrusters for attitude control while flying outside the atmosphere. NAA substituted eight smaller XLR-11 engines that produced only 16,000 pounds of thrust because of delays in the development of the 57,000-pound thrust XLR-99 rocket engine, built specifically for the X-15, For the first 17 months of test flights, the X-15 remained significantly underpowered. NAA chief pilot Crossfield had the primary responsibility for carrying out the initial test flights of the X-15 before handover of the aircraft to NASA and the Air Force.
Left: Flight profile of the first unpowered glide test flight of the X-15. Right: A. Scott Crossfield pilots the X-15 during its first unpowered glide test flight in June 1959.
With Crossfield at the controls of X-15-1, the first captive flight during which the X-15 remained attached to the B-52’s wing, took place on March 10, 1959. Crossfield completed the first unpowered glide flight of X-15-1 on June 8, the flight lasting just five minutes.
Left: The B-52 carrier aircraft taxis on the runway at Edwards Air Force Base in California, with the X-15 and pilot A. Scott Crossfield ready to perform the first powered flight of the hypersonic research aircraft. Right: The B-52 carries the X-15 and Crossfield to the drop altitude.
Left: Pilot A. Scott Crossfield is visible in the cockpit of the X-15 shortly before the release from the B-52 carrier aircraft. Image credit: courtesy North American Aviation. Right: The X-15 dumps excess fuel just prior to the drop.
Left: The X-15 drops from the B-52 carrier aircraft to begin its first powered flight. Middle: The view from the B-52 as the X-15 drops away. Right: Pilot A. Scott Crossfield has ignited all eight of the X-15’s engines to begin the powered flight.
Left: View taken from a chase plane of the X-15 during its glide to the lakebed following its first powered flight. Middle: Pilot A. Scott Crossfield brings the X-15 to a smooth touchdown on the lakebed runway at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Image credit: courtesy North American Aviation. Right: Crossfield hops out of the cockpit at the conclusion of the X-15’s first successful powered flight.
On Sept. 17, at the controls of X-15-2, Crossfield completed the first powered flight of an X-15. Firing all eight of the XLR-11 engines for 224 seconds, he reached a speed of Mach 2.11, or 1,393 miles per hour, and an altitude of 52,341 feet. Overcoming a few hardware problems, he brought the aircraft to a successful landing after a flight lasting just over nine minutes and traveling 88 miles. During 12 more flights, Crossfield expanded the aircraft’s flight envelope to Mach 2.97 and 88,116 feet while gathering important data on its flying characteristics. His last three flights used the higher thrust XLR-99 engine, the one designed for the aircraft. Crossfield’s 14th flight on Dec. 6, 1960, marked the end of the contracted testing program, and North American turned the X-15 over to the Air Force and NASA.
Standing between the first two aircraft, North American Aviation chief test pilot A. Scott Crossfield, left, symbolically hands over the keys to the X-15 to U.S. Air Force pilot Robert M. White and NASA pilot Neil A. Armstrong at the conclusion of the contracted flight test program. Image credit: courtesy North American Aviation.
Left: Chief NASA X-15 pilot Joseph “Joe” A. Walker following his altitude record-setting flight in August 1963. Middle left: Air Force pilot William J. “Pete” Knight following his speed record-setting flight in October 1967. Middle right: NASA pilot Neil A. Armstrong stands next to an X-15. Right: Air Force pilot Joe H. Engle following a flight aboard X-15A-2 in December 1965.
Over nine years, Crossfield and 11 other pilots – five NASA, five U.S. Air Force, and one U.S. Navy – completed a total of 199 flights of the X-15, gathering data on the aerodynamic and thermal performance of the aircraft flying to the edge of space and returning to Earth. The pilots also conducted a series of experiments, taking advantage of the plane’s unique characteristics and flight environment. NASA chief pilot Joseph “Joe” A. Walker flew the first of his 25 flights in March 1960. On his final flight on Aug. 22, 1963, he took X-15-3 to an altitude of 354,200 feet, or 67.1 miles, the highest achieved in the X-15 program, and a record for piloted aircraft that stood until surpassed during the final flight of SpaceShipOne on Oct. 4, 2004.
On Oct. 3, 1967, Air Force pilot William J. “Pete” Knight flew X-15A-2, with fully fueled external tanks, to an unofficial speed record for a piloted winged vehicle of Mach 6.70, or 4,520 miles per hour. The mark stood until surpassed during the reentry of space shuttle Columbia on April 14, 1981. NASA pilot Neil A. Armstrong and Air Force pilot Joe H. Engle flew the X-15 before joining NASA’s astronaut corps. Armstrong took to the skies seven times in the X-15 prior to becoming an astronaut, where he flew the Gemini VIII mission in 1966 and took humanity’s first steps on the Moon in July 1969. Engle has the unique distinction as the only person to have flown both the X-15 (16 times) and the space shuttle (twice in the atmosphere and twice in space). Of the first powered X-15 flight, Engle said, it “was a real milestone in a program that we still benefit from today.”
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By NASA
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
More than 100 scientists will participate in a field campaign involving a research vessel and two aircraft this month to verify the accuracy of data collected by NASA’s new PACE satellite: the Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem mission. The process of data validation includes researchers comparing PACE data with data collected by similar, Earth-based instruments to ensure the measurements match up. Since the mission’s Feb. 8, 2024 launch, scientists around the world have successfully completed several data validation campaigns; the September deployment — PACE-PAX — is its largest. From sea to sky to orbit, a range of vantage points allow NASA Earth scientists to collect different types of data to better understand our changing planet. Collecting them together, at the same place and the same time, is an important step used to verify the accuracy of satellite data.
NASA’s Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) satellite launched in February 2024 and is collecting observations of the ocean and measuring atmospheric particle and cloud properties. This data will help inform scientists and decision makers about the health of Earth’s ocean, land surfaces, and atmosphere and the interactions between them.
Technicians work to process the NASA’s Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) observatory on a spacecraft dolly in a high bay at the Astrotech Space Operations Facility near the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Monday, Dec. 4, 2023. Credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett To make sure the data from PACE’s instruments accurately represent the ocean and the atmosphere, scientists compare (or “validate”) the data collected from orbit with measurements they collect at or near Earth’s surface. The mission’s biggest validation campaign, called PACE Postlaunch Airborne eXperiment (PACE-PAX), began on Sept. 3, 2024, and will last the entire month.
“If we want to have confidence in the observations from PACE, we need to validate those observations,” said Kirk Knobelspiesse, mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an atmospheric scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “This field campaign is focused on doing just that.”
Scientists will make measurements both from aircraft and ships. Based out of three locations across California — Marina, Santa Barbara, and NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards — the campaign includes more than 100 people working in the field and several dozen instruments.
“This campaign allows us to validate data for both the atmosphere and the ocean, all in one campaign,” said Brian Cairns, deputy mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an atmospheric scientist at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City.
On the ocean, ships, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) research vessel Shearwater, will gather data on ocean biology and the optical properties of the water. Scientists onboard will gather water samples to help define the types of phytoplankton at different locations and their relative abundance, something that PACE’s hyperspectral Ocean Color Instrument measures from orbit.
Members of the PACE-PAX team – from left to right, Cecile Carlson, Adam Ahern (NOAA), Dennis Hamaker (NPS), Luke Ziemba, and Michael Shook (NASA Langley Research Center) – in front of the Twin Otter aircraft as they prep for the start of the campaign. Credit: Judy Alfter/NASA Overhead, a Twin Otter research aircraft operated by the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, will collect data on the atmosphere. At altitudes of up to 10,000 feet, the aircraft will sample and measure cloud droplet sizes, aerosol sizes, and the amount of light that those particles scatter and absorb. These are the atmospheric properties that PACE observes with its two polarimeters, SPEXOne and HARP2.
At a higher altitude — approximately 70,000 feet up — NASA’s ER-2 aircraft will provide a complementary view from above clouds, looking down on the atmosphere and ocean in finer detail than the satellite, but with a narrower view.
The NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft preparing for flight on Jan. 29, 2023. The aircraft is based at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center Building 703 in Palmdale, California.Credit: NASA/Carla Thomas The plane will carry several instruments that are similar to those on PACE, including two prototypes of PACE’s polarimeters, called SPEXAirborne and AirHARP. In addition, two instruments called the Portable Remote Imaging SpectroMeter and Pushbroom Imager for Cloud and Aerosol Research and Development — from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasedena, California, and NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley, respectively — will measure essentially all the wavelengths of visible light (color). The remote sensing measurements are key for scientists who want to test the methods they use to analyze PACE satellite data.
Together, the instruments on the ER-2 approximate the data that PACE gathers and complement the in situ measurements from the ocean research vessel and the Twin Otter.
As the field campaign team gathers data, PACE will be observing the same areas of the ocean surface and atmosphere. Once the campaign is over, scientists will look at the data PACE returned and compare them to the measurements they took from the other three vantage points.
“Once you launch the satellite, there’s no more tinkering you can do,” said Ivona Cetinic, deputy mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an ocean scientist at NASA Goddard.
Though the scientists cannot alter the satellite anymore, the algorithms designed to interpret PACE data can be adjusted to make the measurements more accurate. Validation checks from campaigns like PACE-PAX help scientists ensure that PACE will be able to return accurate data about our oceans and atmosphere — critical to better understand our changing planet and its interconnected systems — for years to come.
“The ocean and atmosphere are such changing environments that it’s really important to validate what we see,” Cetinic said. “Understanding the accuracy of the view from the satellite is important, so we can use the data to answer important questions about climate change.”
By Erica McNamee
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
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Last Updated Sep 04, 2024 EditorKate D. RamsayerContactErica McNameeerica.s.mcnamee@nasa.govLocationGoddard Space Flight Center Related Terms
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By NASA
4 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
The Dash 7 aircraft that will be modified into a hybrid electric research vehicle under NASA’s Electrified Powertrain Flight Demonstration project is seen taking off from Moses Lake, Washington en route to Seattle for a ceremony unveiling its new livery. The aircraft is currently operating with a traditional fuel-based propulsion system but will eventually be modified with a hybrid electric system. NASA / David C. Bowman Parked under the lights inside a hangar in Seattle, a hybrid electric research aircraft from electric motor manufacturer magniX showed off a new look symbolizing its journey toward helping NASA make sustainable aviation a reality.
During a special unveiling ceremony hosted by magniX on Aug. 22, leaders from the company and NASA revealed the aircraft, with its new livery, to the public for the first time at King County International Airport, commonly known as Boeing Field.
The aircraft is a De Havilland Dash 7 that was formerly used for carrying cargo. Working under NASA’s Electrified Powertrain Flight Demonstration (EPFD) project, magniX will modify it to serve as a testbed for hybrid electric aircraft propulsion research.
The company’s goal under EPFD is to demonstrate potential fuel savings and performance boosts with a hybrid electric system for regional aircraft carrying up to 50 passengers. These efforts will help reduce environmental impacts from aviation by lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
This livery recognizes the collaborative effort focused on proving that hybrid electric flight for commercial aircraft is feasible.
“We are a research organization that continues to advance aviation, solve the problems of flight, and lead the community into the future,” said Robert A. Pearce, associate administrator for NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate. “Through our EPFD project, we’re taking big steps in partnership to make sure electric aviation is part of the future of commercial flight.”
Lee Noble, director for NASA’s Integrated Aviation Systems Program (right) and Robert Pearce, associate administrator for NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (middle) chat with an AeroTEC test pilot for the Dash 7. Battery packs are stored along the floor of the cabin for magniX’s hybrid electric flight demonstrationsNASA / David C. Bowman Collaborative Effort
NASA is collaborating with industry to modify existing planes with new electrified aircraft propulsion systems. These aircraft testbeds will help demonstrate the benefits of hybrid electric propulsion systems in reducing fuel burn and emissions for future commercial aircraft, part of NASA’s broader mission to make air travel more sustainable.
“EPFD is about showing how regional-scale aircraft, through ground and flight tests, can be made more sustainable through electric technology that is available right now,” said Ben Loxton, vice president for magniX’s work on the EPFD project.
Thus far, magniX has focused on developing a battery-powered engine and testing it on the ground to make sure it will be safe for work in the air. The company will now begin transitioning over to a new phase of the project — transforming the Dash 7 into a hybrid electric research vehicle.
“With the recent completion of our preliminary design review and baseline flight tests, this marks a transition to the next phase, and the most exciting phase of the project: the modification of this Dash 7 with our magniX electric powertrain,” Loxton said.
To make this possible, magniX is working with their airframe integrator AeroTEC to help modify and prepare the aircraft for flight tests that will take place out of Moses Lake, Washington. Air Tindi, which supplied the aircraft to magniX for this project, will help with maintenance and support of the aircraft during the testing phases.
The Dash 7 that will be modified into a hybrid electric research vehicle under NASA’s Electrified Powertrain Flight Demonstration project on display with its new livery for the first time. In front of the plane is an electric powertrain that magniX will integrate into the current aircraft to build a hybrid electric propulsion system.NASA/David C. Bowman Creating a Hybrid Electric Aircraft
A typical hybrid electric propulsion system combines different sources of energy, such as fuel and electricity, to power an aircraft. For magniX’s demonstration, the modified Dash 7 will feature two electric engines fed by battery packs stored in the cabin, and two gas-powered turboprops.
The work will begin with replacing one of the aircraft’s outer turboprop engines with a new, magni650-kilowatt electric engine – the base of its hybrid electric system. After testing those modifications, magniX will swap out the remaining outer turboprop engine for an additional electric one.
Earlier this year, magniX and NASA marked the milestone completion of successfully testing the battery-powered engine at simulated altitude. Engineers at magniX are continuing ground tests of the aircraft’s electrified systems and components at NASA’s Electric Aircraft Testbed (NEAT) facility in Sandusky, Ohio.
By rigorously testing these new technologies under simulated flight conditions, such as high altitudes and extreme temperatures, researchers can ensure each component operates safely before taking to the skies.
The collaboration between EPFD, NASA, GE Aerospace, and magniX works to advance hybrid electric aircraft propulsion technologies for next-generation commercial aircraft in the mid-2030 timeframe. NASA is working with these companies to conduct two flight demonstrations showcasing different approaches to hybrid electric system design.
Researchers will use data gathered from ground and flight tests to identify and reduce certification gaps, as well as inform the development of new standards and regulations for future electrified aircraft.
“We at NASA are excited about EPFD’s potential to make aviation more sustainable,” Pearce said. “Hybrid electric propulsion on a megawatt scale accelerates U.S. progress toward its goal of net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, benefitting all who rely on air transportation every day.”
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Last Updated Sep 03, 2024 EditorJim BankeContactMichael Jorgensen Related Terms
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