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NASA Selects Firefly for New Artemis Science, Tech Delivery to Moon
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By NASA
4 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
On Sept. 9, 2025, NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory captured this image of the Sun.NASA/GSFC/Solar Dynamics Observatory It looked like the Sun was heading toward a historic lull in activity. That trend flipped in 2008, according to new research.
The Sun has become increasingly active since 2008, a new NASA study shows. Solar activity is known to fluctuate in cycles of 11 years, but there are longer-term variations that can last decades. Case in point: Since the 1980s, the amount of solar activity had been steadily decreasing all the way up to 2008, when solar activity was the weakest on record. At that point, scientists expected the Sun to be entering a period of historically low activity.
But then the Sun reversed course and started to become increasingly active, as documented in the study, which appears in The Astrophysical Journal Letters. It’s a trend that researchers said could lead to an uptick in space weather events, such as solar storms, flares, and coronal mass ejections.
“All signs were pointing to the Sun going into a prolonged phase of low activity,” said Jamie Jasinski of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, lead author of the new study. “So it was a surprise to see that trend reversed. The Sun is slowly waking up.”
The earliest recorded tracking of solar activity began in the early 1600s, when astronomers, including Galileo, counted sunspots and documented their changes. Sunspots are cooler, darker regions on the Sun’s surface that are produced by a concentration of magnetic field lines. Areas with sunspots are often associated with higher solar activity, such as solar flares, which are intense bursts of radiation, and coronal mass ejections, which are huge bubbles of plasma that erupt from the Sun’s surface and streak across the solar system.
NASA scientists track these space weather events because they can affect spacecraft, astronauts’ safety, radio communications, GPS, and even power grids on Earth. Space weather predictions are critical for supporting the spacecraft and astronauts of NASA’s Artemis campaign, as understanding the space environment is a vital part of mitigating astronaut exposure to space radiation.
Launching no earlier than Sept. 23, NASA’s IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe) and Carruthers Geocorona Observatory missions, as well as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s SWFO-L1 (Space Weather Follow On-Lagrange 1) mission, will provide new space weather research and observations that will help to drive future efforts at the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
Solar activity affects the magnetic fields of planets throughout the solar system. As the solar wind — a stream of charged particles flowing from the Sun — and other solar activity increase, the Sun’s influence expands and compresses magnetospheres, which serve as protective bubbles of planets with magnetic cores and magnetic fields, including Earth. These protective bubbles are important for shielding planets from the jets of plasma that stream out from the Sun in the solar wind.
Over the centuries that people have been studying solar activity, the quietest times were a three-decade stretch from 1645 to 1715 and a four-decade stretch from 1790 to 1830. “We don’t really know why the Sun went through a 40-year minimum starting in 1790,” Jasinski said. “The longer-term trends are a lot less predictable and are something we don’t completely understand yet.”
In the two-and-a-half decades leading up to 2008, sunspots and the solar wind decreased so much that researchers expected the “deep solar minimum” of 2008 to mark the start of a new historic low-activity time in the Sun’s recent history.
“But then the trend of declining solar wind ended, and since then plasma and magnetic field parameters have steadily been increasing,” said Jasinski, who led the analysis of heliospheric data publicly available in a platform called OMNIWeb Plus, run by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
The data Jasinski and colleagues mined for the study came from a broad collection of NASA missions. Two primary sources — ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer) and the Wind mission — launched in the 1990s and have been providing data on solar activity like plasma and energetic particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth. The spacecraft belong to a fleet of NASA Heliophysics Division missions designed to study the Sun’s influence on space, Earth, and other planets.
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Gretchen McCartney
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Karen Fox / Abbey Interrante
NASA Headquarters, Washington
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Last Updated Sep 15, 2025 Related Terms
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3 min read Weird Ways to Observe the Moon
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By NASA
One of the challenges many teachers face year after year is a sense of working alone. Despite the constant interaction with students many questions often linger: Did the lesson stick? Will students carry this knowledge with them? Will it shape how they see and engage with the world? What can be easy to overlook is that teaching does not happen in isolation. Each classroom, or any other educational setting, is part of a much larger journey that learners travel. This journey extends through a network of educators, where each experience can build on the last. These interconnected networks, known as Connected Learning Ecosystems (CLEs), exist wherever learning happens. At their core, CLEs are the collective of people who contribute to a young person’s growth and education over time.
Educators at the August 2025 Connected Learning Ecosystems Gathering in Orono, ME engaged in discussion around using NASA data in their learning contexts. Recognizing this, NASA’s Science Activation Program launched the Learning Ecosystems Northeast (LENE) project to strengthen and connect regional educator networks across Maine and the broader Northeast. With a shared focus on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), LENE brings together teachers, librarians, 4-H mentors, land trust educators, and many others committed to expanding scientific understanding, deepening data literacy, and preparing youth to navigate a changing planet. To support this work, LENE hosts biannual Connected Learning Ecosystem Gatherings. These multi-day events bring educators together to share progress, celebrate achievements, and plan future collaborations. More than networking, these gatherings reinforce the collective impact educators have, ensuring that their efforts resonate far beyond individual classrooms and enrich the lives of the learners they guide.
“I am inspired by the GMRI staff and participants. I never expected to get to do climate resilience-related work in my current job as a children’s librarian. I am excited to do meaningful and impactful work with what I gain from being part of this the LENE community. This was a very well-run event! Thank you to all!” -anonymous
This year’s Gathering took place August 12 and 13, 2025, in Orono, ME at the University of Maine (a LENE project partner). Nearly 70 educators from across the northeast came together for two amazingly energized days of connection, learning, and future planning. While each event is special, this summer’s Gathering was even more remarkable due to the fact that for, the first time, each workshop was led by an established LENE educator. Either by self-nomination or request from leadership (requiring little convincing), every learning experience shared over the conference days was guided by the thoughtful investigation and real life application of LENE Project Partners, CLE Lead Educators, and community collaborators.
Brian Fitzgerald and Jackie Bellefontaine from the Mount Washington Observatory in New Hampshire, a LENE Project Partner, led the group through a hands-on activity using NASA data and local examples to observe extreme weather. Librarian Kara Reiman guided everyone through the creation and use of a newly established Severe Weather Disaster Prep Kit, including games and tools to manage climate anxiety. Katrina Heimbach, a long time CLE constituent from Western Maine taught how to interpret local data using a creative and fun weaving technique. Because of the established relationship between Learning Ecosystems Northeast and the University of Maine, attendees to the Gathering were able to experience a guided tour through the Advanced Structures and Composites Center and one of its creations, the BioHome3D – the world’s first 3D printed house made entirely with forest-derived, recyclable materials.
Two full days of teachers leading teachers left the entire group feeling energized and encouraged, connected, and centered. The increased confidence in their practices gained by sustained support from their peers allowed these educators to step up and share – embodying the role of Subject Matter Expert. Seeing their colleagues take center stage makes it easier for other educators to envision themselves in similar roles and provides clear guidance on how to take those steps themselves. One educator shared their thoughts following the experience:
“This was my first time attending the LENE conference, and I was immediately welcomed and made to feel ‘part of it all’. I made connections with many of the educators who were present, as well as the LENE staff and facilitators. I hope to connect with my new CLE mates in the near future!” Another participant reported, “I am inspired by the … staff and participants. I never expected to get to do climate resilience-related work in my current job as a children’s librarian. I am excited to do meaningful and impactful work with what I gain from being part of the LENE community. This was a very well-run event! Thank you to all!”
Even with the backing of regional groups, many educators, especially those in rural communities, still struggle with a sense of isolation. The biannual gatherings play an important role in countering that, highlighting the fact that this work is unfolding across the state. Through Connected Learning Ecosystems, educators are able to build and reinforce networks that help close the gaps created by distance and geography.
These Gatherings are part of ongoing programming organized by Learning Ecosystems Northeast, based at the Gulf of Maine Research Institute, that fosters peer communities across the Northeast, through which teachers, librarians, and out-of-school educators can collaborate to expand opportunities for youth to engage in data-driven investigations and integrate in- and out-of-school learning. Learn more about Learning Ecosystems Northeast’s efforts to empower the next generation of environmental stewards: https://www.learningecosystemsnortheast.org.
The Learning Ecosystems Northeast project is supported by NASA under cooperative agreement award number NNX16AB94A and is part of NASA’s Science Activation Portfolio. Learn more about how Science Activation connects NASA science experts, real content, and experiences with community leaders to do science in ways that activate minds and promote deeper understanding of our world and beyond: https://science.nasa.gov/learn/about-science-activation/.
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Last Updated Sep 15, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
NASA/Michael DeMocker NASA astronauts Matthew Dominick (left) and Mark Vande Hei (right) prepare to fly out to a landing zone in the Rocky Mountains as part of the certification run for the NASA Artemis course on Aug. 26, 2025. The mountains in northern Colorado offer similar visual illusions and flight environments to the Moon.
The newly certified lander flight training course marks a key milestone in crew training for Artemis missions to the Moon. Through Artemis, NASA will explore the lunar South Pole, paving the way for human exploration farther into the solar system, including Mars.
Learn more about the training course.
Image credit: NASA/Michael DeMocker
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By NASA
5 min read
Avatars for Astronaut Health to Fly on NASA’s Artemis II
An organ chip for conducting bone marrow experiments in space. Emulate NASA announced a trailblazing experiment that aims to take personalized medicine to new heights. The experiment is part of a strategic plan to gather valuable scientific data during the Artemis II mission, enabling NASA to “know before we go” back to the lunar surface and on to Mars.
The AVATAR (A Virtual Astronaut Tissue Analog Response) investigation will use organ-on-a-chip devices, or organ chips, to study the effects of deep space radiation and microgravity on human health. The chips will contain cells from Artemis II astronauts and fly side-by-side with crew on their approximately 10-day journey around the Moon. This research, combined with other studies on the health and performance of Artemis II astronauts, will give NASA insight into how to best protect astronauts as exploration expands to the surface of the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
AVATAR is NASA’s visionary tissue chip experiment that will revolutionize the very way we will do science, medicine, and human multi-planetary exploration.”
Nicky Fox
Associate Administrator, NASA Science Mission Directorate
“AVATAR is NASA’s visionary tissue chip experiment that will revolutionize the very way we will do science, medicine, and human multi-planetary exploration,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “Each tissue chip is a tiny sample uniquely created so that we can examine how the effects of deep space act on each human explorer before we go to ensure we pack the appropriate medical supplies tailored to each individual’s needs as we travel back to the Moon, and onward to Mars.”
The investigation is a collaboration between NASA, government agencies, and industry partners, leveraging commercial expertise to gain a deeper understanding of human biology and disease. This research could accelerate innovations in personalized healthcare, both for astronauts in space and patients on Earth.
Organ-on-a-chip: mimic for human health
Organ chips, also referred to as tissue chips or microphysiological systems, are roughly the size of a USB thumb drive and used to help understand — and then predict — how an individual might respond to a variety of stressors, such as radiation or medical treatments, including pharmaceuticals. Essentially, these small devices serve as “avatars” for human organs.
Organ chips contain living human cells that are grown to model the structures and functions of specific regions in human organs, such as the brain, lungs, heart, pancreas, and liver — they can beat like a heart, breathe like a lung, or metabolize like a liver. Tissue chips can be linked together to mimic how organs interact with each other, which is important for understanding how the whole human body responds to stressors or treatments.
Researchers and oncologists use human tissue chips today to understand how a specific patient’s cancer might react to different drugs or radiation treatments. To date, a standard milestone for organs-on-chips has been to keep human cells healthy for 30 days. However, NASA and other research institutions are pushing these boundaries by increasing the longevity of organ chips to a minimum of six months so that scientists can observe diseases and drug therapies over a longer period.
Bone marrow as bellwether
The Artemis II mission will use organ chips created using blood-forming stem and progenitor cells, which originate in the bone marrow, from Artemis II crew members.
Bone marrow is among the organs most sensitive to radiation exposure and, therefore, of central importance to human spaceflight. It also plays a vital role in the immune system, as it is the origin of all adult red and white blood cells, which is why researchers aim to understand how deep space radiation affects this organ.
Studies have shown that microgravity affects the development of bone marrow cells. Although the International Space Station operates in low Earth orbit, which is shielded from most cosmic and solar radiation by the Earth’s magnetosphere, astronauts often experience a loss of bone density. Given that Artemis II crew will be flying beyond this protective layer, AVATAR researchers also seek to understand how the combined stressors of deep space radiation and microgravity affect the developing cells.
To make the bone marrow organ chips, Artemis II astronauts will first donate platelets to a local healthcare system. The cells remaining from their samples will contain a small percentage of bone marrow-derived stem and progenitor cells. NASA-funded scientists at Emulate, Inc., which developed the organ chip technology used in AVATAR, will purify these cells with magnetic beads that bind specifically to them. The purified cells will then be placed in the bone marrow chips next to blood vessel cells and other supporting cells to model the structure and function of the bone marrow.
Investigating how radiation affects the bone marrow can provide insights into how radiation therapy and other DNA-damaging agents, such as chemotherapeutic drugs, impair blood cell formation. Its significance for both spaceflight and medicine on Earth makes the bone marrow an ideal organ to study in the Artemis II AVATAR project.
Passenger for research
“For NASA, organ chips could provide vital data for protecting astronaut health on deep space missions,” said Lisa Carnell, director of NASA’s Biological and Physical Sciences division at NASA Headquarters. “As we go farther and stay longer in space, crew will have only limited access to on-site clinical healthcare. Therefore, it’ll be critical to understand if there are unique and specific healthcare needs of each astronaut, so that we can send the right supplies with them on future missions.”
During the Artemis II mission, the organ chips will be secured in a custom payload developed by Space Tango and mounted inside the capsule during the mission. The battery-powered payload will maintain automated environmental control and media delivery to the organ chips throughout the flight.
For NASA, organ chips could provide vital data for protecting astronaut health on deep space missions.”
Lisa Carnell
Director of NASA’s Biological and Physical Sciences Division
Upon return, researchers at Emulate will examine how spaceflight affected the bone marrow chips by performing single-cell RNA sequencing, a powerful technique that measures how thousands of genes change within individual cells. The scientists will compare data from the flight samples to measurements of crew cells used in a ground-based immunology study happening simultaneously. This will provide the most detailed look at the impact of spaceflight and deep space radiation on developing blood cells to date.
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NASA’s Biological and Physical Sciences Division pioneers scientific discovery and enables exploration by using space environments to conduct investigations not possible on Earth. Studying biological and physical phenomenon under extreme conditions allows researchers to advance the fundamental scientific knowledge required to go farther and stay longer in space, while also benefitting life on Earth.
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By NASA
3 min read
Weird Ways to Observe the Moon
Sun Funnels in action! Starting clockwise from the bottom left, a standalone Sun Funnel; attached to a small refractor to observe the transit of Mercury in 2019; attached to a large telescope in preparation for evening lunar observing; projection of the Moon on a funnel from a medium-size scope (5 inches). Night Sky Network International Observe the Moon Night is on October 4, 2025, this year– but you can observe the Moon whenever it’s up, day or night! While binoculars and telescopes certainly reveal incredible details of our neighbor’s surface, bringing out dark seas, bright craters, and numerous odd fissures and cracks, these tools are not the only way to observe details about our Moon. There are more ways to observe the Moon than you might expect, just using common household materials.
Put on a pair of sunglasses, especially polarized sunglasses! You may think this is a joke, but the point of polarized sunglasses is to dramatically reduce glare, and so they allow your eyes to pick out some lunar details! Surprisingly, wearing sunglasses even helps during daytime observations of the Moon.
One unlikely tool is the humble plastic bottle cap! John Goss from the Roanoke Valley Astronomical Society shared these directions on how to make your own bottle cap lunar viewer, which was suggested to him by Fred Schaaf many years ago as a way to also view the thin crescent of Venus when close to the Sun:
“The full Moon is very bright, so much that details are overwhelmed by the glare. Here is an easy way to see more! Start by drilling a 1/16-inch (1.5 mm) diameter hole in a plastic soft drink bottle cap. Make sure it is an unobstructed, round hole. Now look through the hole at the bright Moon. The image brightness will be much dimmer than normal – over 90% dimmer – reducing or eliminating any lunar glare. The image should also be much sharper because the bottle cap blocks light from entering the outer portion of your pupil, where imperfections of the eye’s curving optical path likely lie.” Many report seeing a startling amount of lunar detail!
You can project the Moon! Have you heard of a “Sun Funnel”? It’s a way to safely view the Sun by projecting the image from an eyepiece to fabric stretched across a funnel mounted on top. It’s easy to make at home, too – directions are here: bit.ly/sunfunnel. Depending on your equipment, a Sun Funnel can view the Moon as well as the Sun– a full Moon gives off more than enough light to project from even relatively small telescopes. Large telescopes will project the full Moon and its phases with varying levels of detail; while not as crisp as direct eyepiece viewing, it’s still an impressive sight! You can also mount your smartphone or tablet to your eyepiece for a similar Moon-viewing experience, but the funnel doesn’t need batteries.
Of course, you can join folks in person or online to celebrate our Moon on October 4, 2025, with International Observe the Moon Night – find details at moon.nasa.gov/observe.
Originally posted by Dave Prosper: September 2021
Last Updated by Kat Troche: March 2025
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