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By NASA
6 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
New research suggests vast surface features on Venus called coronae continue to be shaped by tectonic processes. Observations of these features from NASA’s Magellan mission include, clockwise from top left, Artemis Corona, Quetzalpetlatl Corona, Bahet Corona, and Aine Corona.NASA/JPL-Caltech Using archival data from the mission, launched in 1989, researchers have uncovered new evidence that tectonic activity may be deforming the planet’s surface.
Vast, quasi-circular features on Venus’ surface may reveal that the planet has ongoing tectonics, according to new research based on data gathered more than 30 years ago by NASA’s Magellan mission. On Earth, the planet’s surface is continually renewed by the constant shifting and recycling of massive sections of crust, called tectonic plates, that float atop a viscous interior. Venus doesn’t have tectonic plates, but its surface is still being deformed by molten material from below.
Seeking to better understand the underlying processes driving these deformations, the researchers studied a type of feature called a corona. Ranging in size from dozens to hundreds of miles across, a corona is most often thought to be the location where a plume of hot, buoyant material from the planet’s mantle rises, pushing against the lithosphere above. (The lithosphere includes the planet’s crust and the uppermost part of its mantle.) These structures are usually oval, with a concentric fracture system surrounding them. Hundreds of coronae are known to exist on Venus.
Published in the journal Science Advances, the new study details newly discovered signs of activity at or beneath the surface shaping many of Venus’ coronae, features that may also provide a unique window into Earth’s past. The researchers found the evidence of this tectonic activity within data from NASA’s Magellan mission, which orbited Venus in the 1990s and gathered the most detailed gravity and topography data on the planet currently available.
“Coronae are not found on Earth today; however, they may have existed when our planet was young and before plate tectonics had been established,” said the study’s lead author, Gael Cascioli, assistant research scientist at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “By combining gravity and topography data, this research has provided a new and important insight into the possible subsurface processes currently shaping the surface of Venus.”
This artist’s concept of the large Quetzalpetlatl Corona located in Venus’ southern hemisphere depicts active volcanism and a subduction zone, where the foreground crust plunges into the planet’s interior. A new study suggests coronae are the locations of several types of tectonic activity.NASA/JPL-Caltech/Peter Rubin As members of NASA’s forthcoming VERITAS (Venus Emissivity, Radio science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) mission, Cascioli and his team are particularly interested in the high-resolution gravity data the spacecraft will provide. Study coauthor Erwan Mazarico, also at Goddard, will co-lead the VERITAS gravity experiment when the mission launches no earlier than 2031.
Mystery Coronae
Managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, Magellan used its radar system to see through Venus’ thick atmosphere and map the topography of its mountains and plains. Of the geological features the spacecraft mapped, coronae were perhaps the most enigmatic: It wasn’t clear how they formed. In the years since, scientists have found many coronae in locations where the planet’s lithosphere is thin and heat flow is high.
“Coronae are abundant on Venus. They are very large features, and people have proposed different theories over the years as to how they formed,” said coauthor Anna Gülcher, Earth and planetary scientist at the University of Bern in Switzerland. “The most exciting thing for our study is that we can now say there are most likely various and ongoing active processes driving their formation. We believe these same processes may have occurred early in Earth’s history.”
The researchers developed sophisticated 3D geodynamic models that demonstrate various formation scenarios for plume-induced coronae and compared them with the combined gravity and topography data from Magellan. The gravity data proved crucial in helping the researchers detect less dense, hot, and buoyant plumes under the surface — information that couldn’t be discerned from topography data alone. Of the 75 coronae studied, 52 appear to have buoyant mantle material beneath them that is likely driving tectonic processes.
One key process is subduction: On Earth, it happens when the edge of one tectonic plate is driven beneath the adjacent plate. Friction between the plates can generate earthquakes, and as the old rocky material dives into the hot mantle, the rock melts and is recycled back to the surface via volcanic vents.
These illustrations depict various types of tectonic activity thought to persist beneath Venus’ coronae. Lithospheric dripping and subduction are shown at top; below are and two scenarios where hot plume material rises and pushes against the lithosphere, potentially driving volcanism above it.Anna Gülcher, CC BY-NC On Venus, a different kind of subduction is thought to occur around the perimeter of some coronae. In this scenario, as a buoyant plume of hot rock in the mantle pushes upward into the lithosphere, surface material rises and spreads outward, colliding with surrounding surface material and pushing that material downward into the mantle.
Another tectonic process known as lithospheric dripping could also be present, where dense accumulations of comparatively cool material sink from the lithosphere into the hot mantle. The researchers also identify several places where a third process may be taking place: A plume of molten rock beneath a thicker part of the lithosphere potentially drives volcanism above it.
Deciphering Venus
This work marks the latest instance of scientists returning to Magellan data to find that Venus exhibits geologic processes that are more Earth-like than originally thought. Recently, researchers were able to spot erupting volcanoes, including vast lava flows that vented from Maat Mons, Sif Mons, and Eistla Regio in radar images from the orbiter.
While those images provided direct evidence of volcanic action, the authors of the new study will need sharper resolution to draw a complete picture about the tectonic processes driving corona formation. “The VERITAS gravity maps of Venus will boost the resolution by at least a factor of two to four, depending on location — a level of detail that could revolutionize our understanding of Venus’ geology and implications for early Earth,” said study coauthor Suzanne Smrekar, a planetary scientist at JPL and principal investigator for VERITAS.
Managed by JPL, VERITAS will use a synthetic aperture radar to create 3D global maps and a near-infrared spectrometer to figure out what the surface of Venus is made of. Using its radio tracking system, the spacecraft will also measure the planet’s gravitational field to determine the structure of Venus’ interior. All of these instruments will help pinpoint areas of activity on the surface.
For more information about NASA’s VERITAS mission, visit:
https://science.nasa.gov/mission/veritas/
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Ian J. O’Neill
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-354-2649
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Karen Fox / Molly Wasser
NASA Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
karen.c.fox@nasa.gov / molly.l.wasser@nasa.gov
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Last Updated May 14, 2025 Related Terms
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6 min read NASA Studies Reveal Hidden Secrets About Interiors of Moon, Vesta
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By NASA
6 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
This artist’s concept shows the Moon’s hot interior and volcanism about 2 to 3 billion years ago. It is thought that volcanic activity on the lunar near side (the side facing Earth) helped create a landscape dominated by vast plains called mare, which are formed by molten rock that cooled and solidified. NASA/JPL-Caltech Analyzing gravity data collected by spacecraft orbiting other worlds reveals groundbreaking insights about planetary structures without having to land on the surface.
Although the Moon and the asteroid Vesta are very different, two NASA studies use the same technique to reveal new details about the interiors of both.
In the lunar study, published May 14 in the journal Nature, researchers developed a new gravity model of the Moon that includes tiny variations in the celestial body’s gravity during its elliptical orbit around Earth. These fluctuations cause the Moon to flex slightly due to Earth’s tidal force — a process called tidal deformation — which provides critical insights into the Moon’s deep internal structure.
Using their model, the researchers produced the most detailed lunar gravitational map yet, providing future missions an improved way to calculate location and time on the Moon. They accomplished this by analyzing data on the motion of NASA’s GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory) mission, whose spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, orbited the Moon from Dec. 31, 2011, to Dec. 17, 2012.
These views of the Moon’s near side, left, and far side were put together from observations made by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. NASA/JPL-Caltech In a second study, published in the journal Nature Astronomy on April 23, the researchers focused on Vesta, an object in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Using NASA’s Deep Space Network radiometric data and imaging data from the agency’s Dawn spacecraft, which orbited the asteroid from July 16, 2011, to Sept. 5, 2012, they found that instead of having distinct layers as expected, Vesta’s internal structure may be mostly uniform, with a very small iron core or no core at all.
“Gravity is a unique and fundamental property of a planetary body that can be used to explore its deep interior,” said Park. “Our technique doesn’t need data from the surface; we just need to track the motion of the spacecraft very precisely to get a global view of what’s inside.”
Lunar Asymmetry
The lunar study looked at gravitational changes to the Moon’s near and far sides. While the near side is dominated by vast plains — known as mare — formed by molten rock that cooled and solidified billions of years ago, the far side is more rugged, with few plains.
NASA’s Dawn mission obtained this image of the giant asteroid Vesta on July 24, 2011. The spacecraft spent 14 months orbiting the asteroid, capturing more than 30,000 images and fully mapping its surface. NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA Both studies were led by Ryan Park, supervisor of the Solar System Dynamics Group at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, and were years in the making due to their complexity. The team used NASA supercomputers to build a detailed map of how gravity varies across each body. From that, they could better understand what the Moon and Vesta are made of and how planetary bodies across the solar system formed.
Some theories suggest intense volcanism on the near side likely caused these differences. That process would have caused radioactive, heat-generating elements to accumulate deep inside the near side’s mantle, and the new study offers the strongest evidence yet that this is likely the case.
“We found that the Moon’s near side is flexing more than the far side, meaning there’s something fundamentally different about the internal structure of the Moon’s near side compared to its far side,” said Park. “When we first analyzed the data, we were so surprised by the result we didn’t believe it. So we ran the calculations many times to verify the findings. In all, this is a decade of work.”
When comparing their results with other models, Park’s team found a small but greater-than-expected difference in how much the two hemispheres deform. The most likely explanation is that the near side has a warm mantle region, indicating the presence of heat-generating radioactive elements, which is evidence for volcanic activity that shaped the Moon’s near side 2 billion to 3 billion years ago.
Vesta’s Evolution
Park’s team applied a similar approach for their study that focused on Vesta’s rotational properties to learn more about its interior.
“Our technique is sensitive to any changes in the gravitational field of a body in space, whether that gravitational field changes over time, like the tidal flexing of the Moon, or through space, like a wobbling asteroid,” said Park. “Vesta wobbles as it spins, so we could measure its moment of inertia, a characteristic that is highly sensitive to the internal structure of the asteroid.”
Changes in inertia can be seen when an ice skater spins with their arms held outward. As they pull their arms in, bringing more mass toward their center of gravity, their inertia decreases and their spin speeds up. By measuring Vesta’s inertia, scientists can gain a detailed understanding of the distribution of mass inside the asteroid: If its inertia is low, there would be a concentration of mass toward its center; if it’s high, the mass would be more evenly distributed.
Some theories suggest that over a long period, Vesta gradually formed onion-like layers and a dense core. But the new inertia measurement from Park’s team suggests instead that Vesta is far more homogeneous, with its mass distributed evenly throughout and only a small core of dense material, or no core.
Gravity slowly pulls the heaviest elements to a planet’s center over time, which is how Earth ended up with a dense core of liquid iron. While Vesta has long been considered a differentiated asteroid, a more homogenous structure would suggest that it may not have fully formed layers or may have formed from the debris of another planetary body after a massive impact.
In 2016, Park used the same data types as the Vesta study to focus on Dawn’s second target, the dwarf planet Ceres, and results suggested a partially differentiated interior.
Park and his team recently applied a similar technique to Jupiter’s volcanic moon Io, using data acquired by NASA’s Juno and Galileo spacecraft during their flybys of the Jovian satellite as well as from ground-based observations. By measuring how Io’s gravity changes as it orbits Jupiter, which exerts a powerful tidal force, they revealed that the fiery moon is unlikely to possess a global magma ocean.
“Our technique isn’t restricted just to Io, Ceres, Vesta, or the Moon,” said Park. “There are many opportunities in the future to apply our technique for studying the interiors of intriguing planetary bodies throughout the solar system.”
News Media Contacts
Ian J. O’Neill
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-354-2649
ian.j.oneill@jpl.nasa.gov
Karen Fox / Molly Wasser
NASA Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
karen.c.fox@nasa.gov / molly.l.wasser@nasa.gov
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Last Updated May 14, 2025 Related Terms
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7 min read Webb’s Titan Forecast: Partly Cloudy With Occasional Methane Showers
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By NASA
During World Water Day at Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland on Friday, March 21, 2025, NASA’s Glenn Research Center staff, left to right, Heather Roe, Debbie Welch, and Jacqueline Minerd show how NASA’s Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment uses water to regulate the body temperatures of astronauts during spacewalks. Credit: NASA/Lillianne Hammel Water is essential for life, and it is an important engineering tool as well. On March 21, NASA’s Glenn Research Center staff joined Great Lakes Science Center in celebrating World Water Day at the science center, home of the NASA Glenn Visitor Center, in downtown Cleveland. Staff conducted hands-on demonstrations highlighting NASA’s Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment during the free day for students.
A NASA Glenn Research Center staff member demonstrates how NASA’s Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment cools down the body using water during World Water Day at Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland on Friday, March 21, 2025. Credit: NASA/Lillianne Hammel This interactive activity helped students discover how NASA uses water to regulate the body temperatures of astronauts during spacewalks.
Approximately 450 students and educators attended the event.
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By NASA
NASA Glenn Research Center’s Director Dr. Jimmy Kenyon, left, talks with a Youth Tech Academy Red Dragon participant at the FIRST Robotics Competition Buckeye Regional in Cleveland on Friday, April 4, 2025. Credit: NASA/Sara Lowthian-Hanna NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland supported the 26th annual FIRST Robotics Competition Buckeye Regional, April 3-6, at Cleveland State University’s Wolstein Center. This international engineering design challenge combines the excitement of sports with the rigors of STEM.
Mavericks Team participants adjust their robot prior to their turn to compete at the FIRST Robotics Competition Buckeye Regional in Cleveland on Friday, April 4, 2025. Credit: NASA/Sara Lowthian-Hanna NASA Glenn Center Director Dr. Jimmy Kenyon helped kick off this year’s event by addressing the student participants. He shared that NASA Glenn specializes in propulsion and communications, that the center is vital to the region and country, and that “the road to Moon and Mars goes through Ohio” thanks to the center’s contributions to the agency’s missions. He also highlighted several aerospace projects underway at the center and explained how engineering and math skills used in robotics apply to real-life engineering challenges.
Fifty-six teams of high school students competed in the robotics competition, which aims to inspire young people to be STEM leaders and innovators by engaging them in mentor-based engineering.
Members from the Argonauts Team cheer as their robot competes in the FIRST Robotics Competition Buckeye Regional at Cleveland State University in Cleveland on Friday, April 4, 2025. Credit: NASA/Sara Lowthian-Hanna NASA Glenn employees offered their time and expertise as mentors, machinists, or volunteers supporting FIRST Robotics teams leading up to the event as well as on competition day.
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By NASA
Explore Webb Webb News Latest News Latest Images Webb’s Blog Awards X (offsite – login reqd) Instagram (offsite – login reqd) Facebook (offsite- login reqd) Youtube (offsite) Overview About Who is James Webb? Fact Sheet Impacts+Benefits FAQ Science Overview and Goals Early Universe Galaxies Over Time Star Lifecycle Other Worlds Observatory Overview Launch Deployment Orbit Mirrors Sunshield Instrument: NIRCam Instrument: MIRI Instrument: NIRSpec Instrument: FGS/NIRISS Optical Telescope Element Backplane Spacecraft Bus Instrument Module Multimedia About Webb Images Images Videos What is Webb Observing? 3d Webb in 3d Solar System Podcasts Webb Image Sonifications Team International Team People Of Webb More For the Media For Scientists For Educators For Fun/Learning 7 Min Read Webb’s Titan Forecast: Partly Cloudy With Occasional Methane Showers
These images of Titan were taken by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope on July 11, 2023 (top row) and the ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories on July 14, 2023 (bottom row). They show methane clouds appearing at different altitudes in Titan’s northern hemisphere. Full image and description below. Credits:
NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, and W.M. Keck Observatories Saturn’s moon Titan is an intriguing world cloaked in a yellowish, smoggy haze. Similar to Earth, the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and has weather, including clouds and rain. Unlike Earth, whose weather is driven by evaporating and condensing water, frigid Titan has a methane cycle.
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, supplemented with images from the Keck II telescope, has for the first time found evidence for cloud convection in Titan’s northern hemisphere, over a region of lakes and seas. Webb also has detected a key carbon-containing molecule that gives insight into the chemical processes in Titan’s complex atmosphere.
Titan’s Weather
On Titan, methane plays a similar role to water on Earth when it comes to weather. It evaporates from the surface and rises into the atmosphere, where it condenses to form methane clouds. Occasionally it falls as a chilly, oily rain onto a solid surface where water ice is hard as rocks.
“Titan is the only other place in our solar system that has weather like Earth, in the sense that it has clouds and rainfall onto a surface,” explained lead author Conor Nixon of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
The team observed Titan in November 2022 and July 2023 using both Webb and one of the twin ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories telescopes. Those observations not only showed clouds in the mid and high northern latitudes on Titan – the hemisphere where it is currently summer – but also showed those clouds apparently rising to higher altitudes over time. While previous studies have observed cloud convection at southern latitudes, this is the first time evidence for such convection has been seen in the north. This is significant because most of Titan’s lakes and seas are located in its northern hemisphere and evaporation from lakes is a major potential methane source. Their total area is similar to that of the Great Lakes in North America.
On Earth the lowest layer of the atmosphere, or troposphere, extends up to an altitude of about 7 miles (12 kilometers). However, on Titan, whose lower gravity allows the atmospheric layers to expand, the troposphere extends up to about 27 miles (45 kilometers). Webb and Keck used different infrared filters to probe to different depths in Titan’s atmosphere, allowing astronomers to estimate the altitudes of the clouds. The science team observed clouds that appeared to move to higher altitudes over a period of days, although they were not able to directly see any precipitation occurring.
Image A: Titan (Webb and Keck Image)
These images of Titan were taken by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope on July 11, 2023 (top row) and the ground-based W.M. Keck Observatories on July 14, 2023 (bottom row). They show methane clouds (denoted by the white arrows) appearing at different altitudes in Titan’s northern hemisphere. On the left side are representative-color images from both telescopes. In the Webb image light at 1.4 microns is colored blue, 1.5 microns is green, and 2.0 microns is red (filters F140M, F150W, and F200W, respectively). In the Keck image light at 2.13 microns is colored blue, 2.12 microns is green, and 2.06 microns is red (H2 1-0, Kp, and He1b, respectively).
In the middle column are single-wavelength images taken by Webb and Keck at 2.12 microns. This wavelength is sensitive to emission from Titan’s lower troposphere. The rightmost images show emission at 1.64 microns (Webb) and 2.17 microns (Keck), which favor higher altitudes, in Titan’s upper troposphere and stratosphere (an atmospheric layer above the troposphere). It demonstrates that the clouds are seen at higher altitudes on July 14 than earlier on July 11, indicative of upward motion.
NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, and W.M. Keck Observatories Titan’s Chemistry
Titan is an object of high astrobiological interest due to its complex organic (carbon-containing) chemistry. Organic molecules form the basis of all life on Earth, and studying them on a world like Titan may help scientists understand the processes that led to the origin of life on Earth.
The basic ingredient that drives much of Titan’s chemistry is methane, or CH4. Methane in Titan’s atmosphere gets split apart by sunlight or energetic electrons from Saturn’s magnetosphere, and then recombines with other molecules to make substances like ethane (C2H6) along with more complex carbon-bearing molecules.
Webb’s data provided a key missing piece for our understanding of the chemical processes: a definitive detection of the methyl radical CH3. This molecule (called “radical” because it has a “free” electron that is not in a chemical bond) forms when methane is broken apart. Detecting this substance means that scientists can see chemistry in action on Titan for the first time, rather than just the starting ingredients and the end products.
“For the first time we can see the chemical cake while it’s rising in the oven, instead of just the starting ingredients of flour and sugar, and then the final, iced cake,” said co-author Stefanie Milam of the Goddard Space Flight Center.
Image B: Chemistry in Titan’s Atmosphere
This four-panel infographic demonstrates a key chemical process believed to occur in the atmosphere of Saturn’s moon Titan.
1. Titan has a thick, nitrogen (N2) atmosphere that also contains methane (CH4).
2. Molecules known as methyl radicals (CH3) form when methane is broken apart by sunlight or energetic electrons from Saturn’s magnetosphere.
3. It then recombines with other molecules or with itself to make substances like ethane (C2H6).
4. Methane, ethane, and other molecules condense and rain out of the atmosphere, forming lakes and seas on Titan’s surface. NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope detected the methyl radical on Titan for the first time, providing a key missing piece for our understanding of Titan’s chemical processes.
NASA, ESA, CSA, and Elizabeth Wheatley (STScI) The Future of Titan’s Atmosphere
This hydrocarbon chemistry has long-term implications for the future of Titan. When methane is broken apart in the upper atmosphere, some of it recombines to make other molecules that eventually end up on Titan’s surface in one chemical form or another, while some hydrogen escapes from the atmosphere. As a result, methane will be depleted over time, unless there is some source to replenish it.
A similar process occurred on Mars, where water molecules were broken up and the resulting hydrogen lost to space. The result was the dry, desert planet we see today.
“On Titan, methane is a consumable. It’s possible that it is being constantly resupplied and fizzing out of the crust and interior over billions of years. If not, eventually it will all be gone and Titan will become a mostly airless world of dust and dunes,” said Nixon.
Video: Webb Spies Rain Clouds, New Molecule on Titan
Of all the alien worlds in our solar system, one in particular resembles our home planet. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is the only other place we know of where you could walk along the seashore or stand in the rain. However, Titan’s exotic seas and its oily raindrops are not made of water, but of the natural gases methane and ethane, super-chilled into liquid form. Now, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has revealed a crucial, missing step in how ethane is formed, and its discovery could tell us about the future of Titan’s atmosphere. Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Producer/Editor: Dan Gallagher. Lead Scientist/Narrator: Conor Nixon. Lead Animator: Jenny McElligott. Lead Visualizer: Andrew J Christensen. Scientist: Nicholas Lombardo. Animator/Art Director: Michael Lentz. Animation Lead: Walt Feimer. Animators: Jonathan North, Wes Buchanan, Kim Dongjae, Chris Meaney, Adriana Manrique Gutierrez. Data Visualizers: Mark SubbaRao, Kel Elkins, Ernie Wright. Data Provider: Juan Lora. Executive Producer: Wade Sisler. Social Media Support: Kathryn Mersmann. Public Affairs: Laura Betz.
Complementing the Dragonfly Mission
More of Titan’s mysteries will be probed by NASA’s Dragonfly mission, a robotic rotorcraft scheduled to land on Saturn’s moon in 2034. Making multiple flights, Dragonfly will explore a variety of locations. Its in-depth investigations will complement Webb’s global perspective.
“By combining all of these resources, including Webb, NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, and ground-based observatories, we maintain continuity between the former Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn and the upcoming Dragonfly mission,” added Heidi Hammel, vice president of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy and a Webb Interdisciplinary Scientist.
This data was taken as part of Hammel’s Guaranteed Time Observations program to study the Solar System. The results were published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).
To learn more about Webb, visit:
https://science.nasa.gov/webb
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Media Contacts
Laura Betz – laura.e.betz@nasa.gov
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
Christine Pulliam – cpulliam@stsci.edu
Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md.
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Conor Nixon (NASA-GSFC), Heidi Hammel (AURA)
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Last Updated May 14, 2025 Editor Marty McCoy Contact Laura Betz laura.e.betz@nasa.gov Related Terms
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