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By NASA
An unexpectedly strong solar storm rocked our planet on April 23, 2023, sparking auroras as far south as southern Texas in the U.S. and taking the world by surprise.
Two days earlier, the Sun blasted a coronal mass ejection (CME) — a cloud of energetic particles, magnetic fields, and solar material — toward Earth. Space scientists took notice, expecting it could cause disruptions to Earth’s magnetic field, known as a geomagnetic storm. But the CME wasn’t especially fast or massive, and it was preceded by a relatively weak solar flare, suggesting the storm would be minor. But it became severe.
Using NASA heliophysics missions, new studies of this storm and others are helping scientists learn why some CMEs have more intense effects — and better predict the impacts of future solar eruptions on our lives.
During the night of April 23 to 24, 2023, a geomagnetic storm produced auroras that were witnessed as far south as Arizona, Arkansas, and Texas in the U.S. This photo shows green aurora shimmering over Larimore, North Dakota, in the early morning of April 24. Copyright Elan Azriel, used with permission Why Was This Storm So Intense?
A paper published in the Astrophysical Journal on March 31 suggests the CME’s orientation relative to Earth likely caused the April 2023 storm to become surprisingly strong.
The researchers gathered observations from five heliophysics spacecraft across the inner solar system to study the CME in detail as it emerged from the Sun and traveled to Earth.
They noticed a large coronal hole near the CME’s birthplace. Coronal holes are areas where the solar wind — a stream of particles flowing from the Sun — floods outward at higher than normal speeds.
“The fast solar wind coming from this coronal hole acted like an air current, nudging the CME away from its original straight-line path and pushing it closer to Earth’s orbital plane,” said the paper’s lead author, Evangelos Paouris of the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland. “In addition to this deflection, the CME also rotated slightly.”
Paouris says this turned the CME’s magnetic fields opposite to Earth’s magnetic field and held them there — allowing more of the Sun’s energy to pour into Earth’s environment and intensifying the storm.
The strength of the April 2023 geomagnetic storm was a surprise in part because the coronal mass ejection (CME) that produced it followed a relatively weak solar flare, seen as the bright area to the lower right of center in this extreme ultraviolet image of the Sun from NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory. The CMEs that produce severe geomagnetic storms are typically preceded by stronger flares. However, a team of scientists think fast solar wind from a coronal hole (the dark area below the flare in this image) helped rotate the CME and made it more potent when it struck Earth. NASA/SDO Cool Thermosphere
Meanwhile, NASA’s GOLD (Global-scale Observations of Limb and Disk) mission revealed another unexpected consequence of the April 2023 storm at Earth.
Before, during, and after the storm, GOLD studied the temperature in the middle thermosphere, a part of Earth’s upper atmosphere about 85 to 120 miles overhead. During the storm, temperatures increased throughout GOLD’s wide field of view over the Americas. But surprisingly, after the storm, temperatures dropped about 90 to 198 degrees Fahrenheit lower than they were before the storm (from about 980 to 1,070 degrees Fahrenheit before the storm to 870 to 980 degrees Fahrenheit afterward).
“Our measurement is the first to show widespread cooling in the middle thermosphere after a strong storm,” said Xuguang Cai of the University of Colorado, Boulder, lead author of a paper about GOLD’s observations published in the journal JGR Space Physics on April 15, 2025.
The thermosphere’s temperature is important, because it affects how much drag Earth-orbiting satellites and space debris experience.
“When the thermosphere cools, it contracts and becomes less dense at satellite altitudes, reducing drag,” Cai said. “This can cause satellites and space debris to stay in orbit longer than expected, increasing the risk of collisions. Understanding how geomagnetic storms and solar activity affect Earth’s upper atmosphere helps protect technologies we all rely on — like GPS, satellites, and radio communications.”
Predicting When Storms Strike
To predict when a CME will trigger a geomagnetic storm, or be “geoeffective,” some scientists are combining observations with machine learning. A paper published last November in the journal Solar Physics describes one such approach called GeoCME.
Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence in which a computer algorithm learns from data to identify patterns, then uses those patterns to make decisions or predictions.
Scientists trained GeoCME by giving it images from the NASA/ESA (European Space Agency) SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory) spacecraft of different CMEs that reached Earth along with SOHO images of the Sun before, during, and after each CME. They then told the model whether each CME produced a geomagnetic storm.
Then, when it was given images from three different science instruments on SOHO, the model’s predictions were highly accurate. Out of 21 geoeffective CMEs, the model correctly predicted all 21 of them; of 7 non-geoeffective ones, it correctly predicted 5 of them.
“The algorithm shows promise,” said heliophysicist Jack Ireland of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, who was not involved in the study. “Understanding if a CME will be geoeffective or not can help us protect infrastructure in space and technological systems on Earth. This paper shows machine learning approaches to predicting geoeffective CMEs are feasible.”
The white cloud expanding outward in this image sequence is a coronal mass ejection (CME) that erupted from the Sun on April 21, 2023. Two days later, the CME struck Earth and produced a surprisingly strong geomagnetic storm. The images in this sequence are from a coronagraph on the NASA/ESA (European Space Agency) SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory) spacecraft. The coronagraph uses a disk to cover the Sun and reveal fainter details around it. The Sun’s location and size are indicated by a small white circle. The planet Jupiter appears as a bright dot on the far right. NASA/ESA/SOHO Earlier Warnings
During a severe geomagnetic storm in May 2024 — the strongest to rattle Earth in over 20 years — NASA’s STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory) measured the magnetic field structure of CMEs as they passed by.
When a CME headed for Earth hits a spacecraft first, that spacecraft can often measure the CME and its magnetic field directly, helping scientists determine how strong the geomagnetic storm will be at Earth. Typically, the first spacecraft to get hit are one million miles from Earth toward the Sun at a place called Lagrange Point 1 (L1), giving us only 10 to 60 minutes advanced warning.
By chance, during the May 2024 storm, when several CMEs erupted from the Sun and merged on their way to Earth, NASA’s STEREO-A spacecraft happened to be between us and the Sun, about 4 million miles closer to the Sun than L1.
A paper published March 17, 2025, in the journal Space Weather reports that if STEREO-A had served as a CME sentinel, it could have provided an accurate prediction of the resulting storm’s strength 2 hours and 34 minutes earlier than a spacecraft could at L1.
According to the paper’s lead author, Eva Weiler of the Austrian Space Weather Office in Graz, “No other Earth-directed superstorm has ever been observed by a spacecraft positioned closer to the Sun than L1.”
Earth’s Lagrange points are places in space where the gravitational pull between the Sun and Earth balance, making them relatively stable locations to put spacecraft. NASA By Vanessa Thomas
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
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By NASA
NASA For some people, a passion for space is something that might develop over time, but for Patrick Junen, the desire was there from the beginning. With a father and grandfather who both worked for NASA, space exploration is not just a dream; it remains a family legacy.
Now, as the stage assembly and structures subsystem manager at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for the BOLE (Booster Obsolescence Life Extension) Program — an advanced solid rocket booster for NASA’s SLS (Space Launch System) heavy lift rocket — Junen is continuing that legacy.
“My grandfather worked on the Apollo & Space Shuttle Programs. Then my dad went on to work for the Space Shuttle and SLS Programs,” Junen says. “I guess you could say engineering is in my blood.”
In his role, he’s responsible for managing the Design, Development, Test, & Evaluation team for all unpressurized structural elements, such as the forward skirt, aft skirt, and the integration hardware that connects the boosters to the core stage. He also collaborates closely with NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems at Kennedy Space Center in Florida to coordinate any necessary modifications to ground facilities or the mobile launcher to support the new boosters.
Junen enjoys the technical challenges of his role and said he feels fortunate to be in a position of leadership — but it takes a team of talented individuals to build the next generation of boosters. As a former offensive lineman for the University of Mississippi, he knows firsthand the power of teamwork and the importance of effective communication in guiding a coordinated effort.
“I’ve always been drawn to team activities, and exploration is the ultimate team endeavor,” Junen says. “On the football field, it takes a strong team to be successful — and it’s really no different from what we’re doing as a team at NASA with our Northrop Grumman counterparts for the SLS rocket and Artemis missions.”
As a kid, Junen often accompanied his dad to Space Shuttle launches and was inspired by some of the talented engineers that developed Shuttle. Years later, he’s still seeing some of those same faces — but now they’re teammates, working together toward a greater mission.
“Growing up around Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, there was always this strong sense of family and dedication to the Misson. And that has always resonated with me,” Junen recalls.
This philosophy of connecting family to the mission is a tradition Junen now continues with his own children. One of his fondest NASA memories is watching the successful launch of Artemis I on Nov. 16, 2022. Although he couldn’t attend in person, Junen and his family made the most of the moment — watching the launch live beneath the Saturn V rocket at Huntsville’s U.S. Space & Rocket Center. With his dad beside him and his daughter on his shoulders, three generations stood beneath the rocket Junen’s grandfather helped build, as a new era of space exploration began.
In June, Junen witnessed the BOLE Demonstration Motor-1 perform a full-scale static test to demonstrate the ballistic performance for the evolved booster motor. This test isn’t just a technical milestone for Junen — it’s a continuation of a lifelong journey rooted in family and teamwork.
As NASA explores the Moon and prepares for the journey to Mars through Artemis, Junen is helping shape the next chapter of human spaceflight. And just like the generations before him, he’s not only building rockets — he’s building a legacy.
News Media Contact
Jonathan Deal
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
256-544-0034
jonathan.e.deal@nasa.gov
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By NASA
An artist’s concept of NASA’s Orion spacecraft orbiting the Moon while using laser communications technology through the Orion Artemis II Optical Communications System.Credit: NASA/Dave Ryan As NASA prepares for its Artemis II mission, researchers at the agency’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland are collaborating with The Australian National University (ANU) to prove inventive, cost-saving laser communications technologies in the lunar environment.
Communicating in space usually relies on radio waves, but NASA is exploring laser, or optical, communications, which can send data 10 to 100 times faster to the ground. Instead of radio signals, these systems use infrared light to transmit high-definition video, picture, voice, and science data across vast distances in less time. NASA has proven laser communications during previous technology demonstrations, but Artemis II will be the first crewed mission to attempt using lasers to transmit data from deep space.
To support this effort, researchers working on the agency’s Real Time Optical Receiver (RealTOR) project have developed a cost-effective laser transceiver using commercial-off-the-shelf parts. Earlier this year, NASA Glenn engineers built and tested a replica of the system at the center’s Aerospace Communications Facility, and they are now working with ANU to build a system with the same hardware models to prepare for the university’s Artemis II laser communications demo.
“Australia’s upcoming lunar experiment could showcase the capability, affordability, and reproducibility of the deep space receiver engineered by Glenn,” said Jennifer Downey, co-principal investigator for the RealTOR project at NASA Glenn. “It’s an important step in proving the feasibility of using commercial parts to develop accessible technologies for sustainable exploration beyond Earth.”
During Artemis II, which is scheduled for early 2026, NASA will fly an optical communications system aboard the Orion spacecraft, which will test using lasers to send data across the cosmos. During the mission, NASA will attempt to transmit recorded 4K ultra-high-definition video, flight procedures, pictures, science data, and voice communications from the Moon to Earth.
An artist’s concept of the optical communications ground station at Mount Stromlo Observatory in Canberra, Australia, using laser communications technology.Credit: The Australian National University Nearly 10,000 miles from Cleveland, ANU researchers working at the Mount Stromlo Observatory ground station hope to receive data during Orion’s journey around the Moon using the Glenn-developed transceiver model. This ground station will serve as a test location for the new transceiver design and will not be one of the mission’s primary ground stations. If the test is successful, it will prove that commercial parts can be used to build affordable, scalable space communication systems for future missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
“Engaging with The Australian National University to expand commercial laser communications offerings across the world will further demonstrate how this advanced satellite communications capability is ready to support the agency’s networks and missions as we set our sights on deep space exploration,” said Marie Piasecki, technology portfolio manager for NASA’s Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Program.
As NASA continues to investigate the feasibility of using commercial parts to engineer ground stations, Glenn researchers will continue to provide critical support in preparation for Australia’s demonstration.
Strong global partnerships advance technology breakthroughs and are instrumental as NASA expands humanity’s reach from the Moon to Mars, while fueling innovations that improve life on Earth. Through Artemis, NASA will send astronauts to explore the Moon for scientific discovery, economic benefits, and build the foundation for the first crewed missions to Mars.
The Real Time Optical Receiver (RealTOR) team poses for a group photo in the Aerospace Communications Facility at NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland on Friday, Dec. 13, 2024. From left to right: Peter Simon, Sarah Tedder, John Clapham, Elisa Jager, Yousef Chahine, Michael Marsden, Brian Vyhnalek, and Nathan Wilson.Credit: NASA The RealTOR project is one aspect of the optical communications portfolio within NASA’s SCaN Program, which includes demonstrations and in-space experiment platforms to test the viability of infrared light for sending data to and from space. These include the LCOT (Low-Cost Optical Terminal) project, the Laser Communications Relay Demonstration, and more. NASA Glenn manages the project under the direction of agency’s SCaN Program at NASA Headquarters in Washington.
The Australian National University’s demonstration is supported by the Australian Space Agency Moon to Mars Demonstrator Mission Grant program, which has facilitated operational capability for the Australian Deep Space Optical Ground Station Network.
To learn how space communications and navigation capabilities support every agency mission, visit:
https://www.nasa.gov/communicating-with-missions
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By NASA
Explore This Section Science Artemis Mission Accomplished! Artemis… Overview Learning Resources Science Activation Teams SME Map Opportunities More Science Activation Stories Citizen Science 5 min read
Mission Accomplished! Artemis ROADS III National Challenge Competitors Celebrate their Achievements
The NASA Science Activation program’s Northwest Earth and Space Sciences Pathways (NESSP) team has successfully concluded the 2024–2025 Artemis ROADS III National Challenge, an educational competition that brought real NASA mission objectives to student teams (and reached more than 1,500 learners) across the country. From December 2024 through May 2025, over 300 teams of upper elementary, middle, and high school students from 22 states participated, applying STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) skills in exciting and creative ways.
Participants tackled eight Mission Objectives inspired by NASA’s Artemis missions, which aim to return humans to the Moon. Students explored challenges such as:
Designing a water purification system for the Moon inspired by local water cycles Developing a Moon-based agricultural plan based on experimental results Programming a rover to autonomously navigate lunar tunnels Engineering and refining a human-rated water bottle rocket capable of safely returning a “chip-stronaut” to Earth Envisioning their future careers through creative projects like graphic novels or video interviews Exploring NASA’s Artemis program through a new Artemis-themed Lotería game In-person hub events were hosted by Northern Arizona University, Central Washington University, and Montana State University, where teams from Washington, Montana, and Idaho gathered to present their work, collaborate with peers, and experience life on a college campus. Students also had the chance to connect virtually with NASA scientists and engineers through NESSP’s NASA Expert Talks series.
“Artemis ROADS III is NESSP’s eighth ROADS challenge, and I have to say, I think it’s the best one yet. It’s always inspiring to see so many students across the country engage in a truly meaningful STEM experience. I heard from several students and educators that participating in the challenge completely changed their perspective on science and engineering. I believe that’s because this program is designed to let students experience the joy of discovery and invention—driven by both teamwork and personal creativity—that real scientists and engineers love about their work. We also show students the broad range of STEM expertise NASA relies on to plan and carry out a mission like Artemis. Most importantly, it gives them a chance to feel like they are part of the NASA mission, which can be truly transformative.”
– Dr. Darci Snowden, Director, NESSP
NESSP proudly recognizes the following teams for completing all eight Mission Objectives and the Final Challenge:
Space Pringles, 3rd-5th Grade, San Antonio, TX Space Axolotls, 3rd-5th Grade, Roberts, MT TEAM Wild, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Pessimistic Penguins, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Dwarf Planets, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Astronomical Rovers, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Cosmic Honeybuns, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Houston we have a Problem, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT FBI Wanted List, 6th-8th Grade, Eagle Mountain, UT Lunar Legion, 6th-8th Grade, San Antonio, TX Artemis Tax-Free Space Stallions, 6th-8th Grade, Egg Harbor, NJ Aquila, 6th-8th Grade, Gooding, ID Space Warriors, 6th-8th Grade, Wapato, WA Team Cygnus, 6th-8th Grade, Red Lodge, MT Maple RocketMen, 6th-8th Grade, Northbrook, IL RGB Hawks, 6th-8th Grade, Sagle, ID The Blue Moon Bigfoots, 6th-8th Grade, Medford, OR W.E.P.Y.C.K., 6th-8th Grade, Roberts, MT Lunar Dawgz, 6th-8th Grade, Safford, AZ ROSEBUD ROCKETEERS, 6th-8th Grade, Rosebud, MT The Cosmic Titans, 6th-8th Grade, Thomson Falls, MT The Chunky Space Monkeys, 6th-8th Grade, Naches, WA ROSEBUD RED ANGUS, 9th-12th Grade, Rosebud, MT Bulky Bisons, 9th-12th Grade, Council Grove, KS The Falling Stars, 9th-12th Grade, Thomson Falls, MT The Roadkillers, 9th-12th Grade, Thomson Falls, MT The Goshawks, 9th-12th Grade, Thomson Falls, MT Sequim Cosmic Catalysts, 9th-12th Grade, Sequim, WA Spuddie Buddies, 9th-12th Grade, Moses Lake, WA Astrocoquí 2, 9th-12th Grade, Mayaguez, PR Big Sky Celestials, 9th-12th Grade, Billings, MT TRYOUTS, 9th-12th Grade, Columbus, MT Cosmonaughts, 9th-12th Grade, Columbus, MT TCCS 114, 9th-12th Grade, Tillamook, OR Marvin’s Mighty Martians, 9th-12th Grade, Simms, TX You can see highlights of these teams’ work in the Virtual Recognition Ceremony video on the NESSP YouTube channel. The presentation also features the teams selected to travel to Kennedy Space Center in August of 2025, the ultimate prize for these future space explorers!
In addition to student engagement, the ROADS program provided professional development workshops and NGSS-aligned classroom resources to support K–12 educators. Teachers are invited to explore these materials and register for the next round of workshops, beginning in August 2025: https://nwessp.org/professional-development-registration.
For more information about NESSP, its programs, partners, and the ROADS National Challenge, visit www.nwessp.org or contact info@nwessp.org.
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NASA’s Northwest Earth and Space Science Pathways’ (NESSP) project is supported by NASA cooperative agreement award number 80NSSC22M0006 and is part of NASA’s Science Activation Portfolio. Learn more about how Science Activation connects NASA science experts, real content, and experiences with community leaders to do science in ways that activate minds and promote deeper understanding of our world and beyond: https://science.nasa.gov/learn/about-science-activation/
A water bottle rocket launches into the air carrying its precious chip-stronaut cargo. Share
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Last Updated Jun 23, 2025 Editor NASA Science Editorial Team Related Terms
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